Introduction
While 3D printing has largely been used for peaceful purposes in both commercial and engineering applications, it has also been used by state and non-state actors to develop and manufacture weapons. 3D printing is rapidly becoming a key aspect in security and military-related affairs as it is being adopted in conflict zones such as Ukraine and Myanmar to aid military forces in battle. This Insight highlights some of the ways in which 3D printing has been used in conflict zones, the advantages and disadvantages of this technology, and its future projection, particularly within the sphere of war and conflict.
Types of Use in Conflict Zones
The use of 3D printing in conflict zones can be broadly divided into two categories: offensive and non-offensive. This Insight will only focus on offensive use. Non-offensive uses of 3D printing in conflict zones include medical applications to manufacture tourniquets and construction.
Munitions and weapons components
3D-printing has been used by military forces to manufacture weapons and weapons parts in several conflict zones. For example, the Ukrainian forces have used this technology to produce munitions in their battles against the Russians. Known as ‘candy bombs’, these improvised explosive devices consist of a 3D-printed casing that is filled with conventional explosive material such as C4 and shrapnel. These are manufactured by groups of amateur arms manufacturers operating both inside and outside the country that work closely with the Ukrainian military.
Some reports have suggested that these groups manufacture close to 1000 candy bombs per week. Others have noted the production of approximately 30,000 candy bombs between March and August 2023 and the import of at least 65,000 from outside of Ukraine since November 2022. Because they are made of plastic, these shells are imported into the country as toys or household items. These groups have also used ChatGPT to aid in engineering and get manufacturing tips.
The use of 3D-printed candy bombs by the Ukrainian forces has helped alleviate their weapons shortages in their battle against Russian forces. The Ukrainian forces have also used 3D printing to modify RKG-3 grenades – a Soviet anti-tank grenade that was developed in the 1940s – into munitions that can be dropped from commercial drones in the air. To achieve this, stabilising fins and tailcones are 3D-printed and attached to these munitions, which have been renamed as RKG1600. These munitions are dropped from the air, targeting adversaries below. These converted grenades are able to hit targets within a 1-metre radius from a height of up to 300 meters. One report suggested that each Ukrainian brigade is equipped with a 3D printer to specifically build mechanisms that drop bombs from drones.
In Myanmar, the 3D-printing of weapons has been pioneered by the younger, more tech-savvy generation of the People’s Defence Forces (PDF), the armed wing of the pro-democracy National Unity Government (NUG). Most of these individuals are young engineers, students and IT professionals. Like in Ukraine, 3D-printing has been used to produce stabilisers for mortars and other munitions to alleviate the weapons shortages faced by these fighters and function as an alternative source of weaponry. In Syria, as early as 2016, reports emerged of suspected 3D-printed munitions being dropped from drones near the Turkish border. Whether this was carried out by the Islamic State (IS) group or not is unclear.
In Somalia, a July 2024 United Nations (UN) report noted that Al-Shabaab was working on “utilizing 3D printers for designing explosives, weapons and unmanned aerial systems components”. This makes it one of the first Islamist extremist terrorist groups to experiment with this technology. Islamist extremist groups have been rather slow to take up this technology, possibly due to geographical, ideological and utilitarian reasons.
Apart from munitions, the technology has been used to manufacture supplementary components such as vehicle parts. The US Army has used it to manufacture customised equipment and other components such as weapon grips, drone landing pads, ear moulds and vehicle parts, and is experimenting with 3D-printed uniforms for their military. In Sweden, a 3D-printed component was used and successfully tested on a Gripen fighter jet.
Drones
In November 2023, Germany donated 3D-printed drones to Ukraine. These drones, called the Titan Falcon, were developed by an engineering firm called Titan Dynamics, which specialises in additive manufacturing of aerial systems. The Titan Falcon costs a mere $40 USD, has an endurance of up to 6 hours of flight time, a flight range of up to 400 km, and a first-person-view (FPV) camera for live surveillance feedback. As of November 2023, two drones were already tested in combat in Ukraine. The UK government was also reported to have tested a 3D-printed delta-wing suicide drone to be supplied to Ukraine.
In Myanmar, drones have also been manufactured using 3D printing. One report noted the manufacture of a drone called The Liberator (MKI and MKII) that was inspired by the Ukranian-made drone called The Punisher. Costing around $5000 USD, The Liberator is a fixed-wing drone that has a 3D-printed frame reinforced with fibreglass and can carry up to 1.5kg of explosives. Other components of the drone, such as the battery, motor and control surfaces, are smuggled in from Thailand and China. The drone has been employed on the battlefields by groups such as the Karenni Nationalities Defence Force (KNDF), which is under the PDF umbrella. These drones have been noted to be ‘one of the most potent weapons’ in their fight against the junta.
Firearms
3D-printed firearms have been used in the conflict in Myanmar by various groups under the PDF umbrella, such as the KNDF and the Salingyi Special Task Force (SSTF). Like drones, the 3D-printing of firearms is primarily driven by the younger generation of fighters. They have made use of the FGC-9, a hybrid semi-automatic pistol calibre carbine that is mostly 3D-printed and supplemented with hardware store materials such as steel tubes. The FGC-9 was developed by German-Kurdish 3D gun designer Jacob Duygu, who is revered as a hero in the online 3D-printed firearm design community.
3D-printed firearms have been used to supplement the PDF’s arsenal and are considered a secondary weapon. These firearms are often used in ambushes on junta forces where conventional arms are procured, making it the first 3D-printed firearm to be used on a battlefield. The firearm has also been used to train the PDF fighters and arm fighters at checkpoints. There have been at least 21 incidents of 3D-printed firearms being manufactured and used in the conflict (based on research and data collected by the author), for example, in regions such as Sagaing.
Several raids by the junta on the PDFs have uncovered caches of FGC-9s. In September 2023, the junta recovered a cache of 60 FGC-9s in raids on PDF camps. Similarly, in May 2024, 30 FGC-9s were seized in a raid. Apart from the FGC-9, 3D-printing has been used to manufacture components of M-16 rifles and other semi-automatic firearms. There has been no evidence of the use of 3D-printed firearms in other conflicts, such as Ukraine.
Advantages and Disadvantages
3D-printing offers several advantages to actors using it offensively on the battlefield.
- Firstly, 3D-printing provides an alternative source of weaponry for militaries in situations where they have faced shortages of weapons. The Ukrainian military’s use of 3D-printing to manufacture munitions and drones has complemented their conventional weaponry and has added an asymmetric component to their war strategy. Some of these weapons, for example, the RKG 1600 used by the Ukrainians, have been said to be a ‘game changer’. In Myanmar, while this technology remains on the periphery, 3D-printed firearms, particularly the FGC-9, and drones have helped the PDFs circumvent weapon shortages and supplement their available firepower, providing them a crucial boost which would not have been possible without this technology. Small, diffuse groups of PDFs have set up small 3D-printing factories to manufacture weapons in the jungles and even in small apartment complexes.
- Secondly, 3D-printing offers an avenue for armed forces to manufacture bespoke components and weapons quickly and on-demand. The fact that 3D-printing essentially requires a computer, raw materials and commercially available 3D printers means that it is mobile, rapid and has a logistical advantage compared to sourcing industrial components. The technology allows the mobile development of mission-specific components and weapons right on the frontlines of battles, providing ground forces with quick access to essential components. It provides adaptability, where each print is tailored to the specific mission’s requirements. It is also relatively cheaper compared to factory-made components and bypasses the need for lengthy and often expensive supply chain logistics.
- One of the disadvantages of using 3D-printing on the battlefield is its durability and dependability, or lack thereof specifically. 3D-printed weapons, particularly firearms, may not be as durable as factory-made weapons as they are made from plastics and polymers as opposed to metal. For this reason, these weapons have been mostly used as supplementary firearms, like in Myanmar. The performance of these weapons relies heavily on the quality of the plastics and the skill of the maker and is not as easy as ‘download-print-shoot’. Single-use weapons like munitions and non-offensive applications like medical equipment may not be affected as much as continuous-use weapons like firearms.
A game-changer?
3D-printing technology is developing at an extremely rapid rate, reshaping the dynamics of modern warfare. This technology has provided military forces, particularly smaller forces, a limited asymmetric advantage against larger adversaries on the battlefield, both offensively and non-offensively. While 3D-printed weapons have primarily served as a supplementary addition to conventional arsenals, their potential is rapidly expanding as the technology develops.
Having said that, 3D-printing has been exploited by criminal and terrorist networks in regions such as Europe, North America and Australia to manufacture weapons and firearms. Whilst it has primarily been a criminal enterprise, several terrorist plots, particularly linked to the far-right, have featured 3D-printed weapons. Between 2019 and 2024, there have been numerous terrorist plots in Europe and North America that featured 3D-printed weapons.
In February 2024, three men motivated by far-right ideology were charged with manufacturing an FGC-9 and planning attacks on an Islamic education centre in Leeds. In Germany, a 19-year-old was charged with plotting far-right attacks and for manufacturing components of a pistol using a 3D-printer. In Canada, Pascal Tribout, a right-wing extremist, was arrested and charged for manufacturing 3D-printed firearms. Canadian police discovered a 3D-printing ‘factory’ in his condominium with 13 3D-printers and he was found to have manufactured the FGC-9 and other firearm components.
The recent alleged adoption of 3D-printing by Al-Shabaab highlights the fluidity, adaptability and danger of this technology within the Islamist extremist sphere as well. In September 2023, a PhD student from Coventry was alleged to have used a 3D-printer to construct a drone for IS. In August 2024, a BBC Monitoring Report noted that manuals detailing the manufacture of the Urutau, a 9mm semi-automatic hybrid 3D-printed firearm inspired by the infamous FGC-9 were shared on pro-IS chatrooms. Apart from the Urutau, design manuals for the FGC-9 and information on the manufacture of barrels and homemade ammunition were also shared.
The interest in 3D-printing among Islamist extremist circles, coupled with the ease with which information relating to 3D-printed firearms can be obtained, poses a significant security threat to the terrorism sphere. In this regard, cooperation between social media platforms and law enforcement is crucial due to the heavy links between 3D-printed weapons and the online sphere.
Advances in firearms designs and the development of more durable polymers are making 3D-printed weapons more viable and sophisticated. The rise of metal 3D-printing may be able to circumvent the durability issues faced by standard polymer-based 3D-printing. Large, conventional militaries like the US and Britain are already incorporating this technology into their arsenals in unique ways. It is only a matter of time when 3D-printing revolutionizes warfare and battlefield use. The future of conflict will be intricately linked to the advances of 3D-printing and its coupling with other technologies.